This is my expedition fuel planning tool.

Background

Planning for fuel usage can be kind of tricky.  Different conditions, the choice of fuel type, the type of pot used, how windy it is each day, altitude, etc all have an effect on the fuel consumption of your stove.

I’ve been playing around with my set up, doing some experiments.  I then used the data from those experiments to create a model of fuel usage that I could use to predict how much fuel I would probably need on a trip of a given duration.

This model is what is known as a Monte Carlo simulation. It runs many many scenarios given a set of data, and then outputs the average result of those scenarios.

How to use the tool

To use the tool, you will need to do two sets of experiments.  You’ll notice I say “repeat several times” for each experiment.  How many is “several”?  Well, the more the better.  At the most, 30 iterations.  Empirically, 30 iterations will give us a normally distributed sample, no matter what the underlying distribution looks like.  In reality, I’d say 5 or 6 runs should be plenty.

Experiment 1

Boil 1 liter of water using your stove, pot, and fuel in the way you intend to use it on the trip.  Time how long it takes to reach a boil.  Repeat several times.

Calculate the mean and standard deviation (MS Excel will do this for you quite easily).

Experiment 2

Measure a specific amount of fuel into your fuel bottle, and boil 1 liter of water.  Time how long it takes for that water to boil.  Measure the fuel remaining.  Repeat several times.

Calculate the mean and standard deviation of how much fuel your stove uses per minute.  Fluid ounces burned / minutes to boil is the formula you’ll use.

Data

Those four numbers you calculated (mean boil time, SD of boil time, mean fuel usage, and SD of fuel usage) will be entered under “experimental data”.

Then, you select the type of fuel used (for now, I have only entered white gas and kerosene. . . if you really want to use this for unleaded auto gas or jet fuel, I can add that easily enough).

Finally, enter the volume of water you plan to boil each day, and the length of your trip in days.

Output

For now, I output the mean, standard deviation, and mean plus two SDs in fluid ounces of fuel.  I also calculate the mass of the fuel for the mean plus two SDs.

Two SDs results in a pretty conservative number in terms of probable fuel requirements.  Lots of industries like to use six SDs, and you can easily calculate that yourself, or, if enough people ask, I can add that calculation to the tool.  You’ll have to decide your risk tolerance for yourself.

Precision and Accuracy

This tool is written in PHP, and the results are similar to the results I get when using MS Excel for the calculations.  I used the mt_rand function in PHP, as the documentation claims that it is a better random number generator than the rand function.  I didn’t actually plot the results from mt_rand to see the distribution.  I wrote all the statistical procedures myself (even for the mean and standard deviation calculations), so they depend on good inputs (e.g. real random numbers and solid experimental data).

Conclusion

I’d really like to hear feedback on this tool.  With some more users playing with it, perhaps it can be made even better.

Yes, I said money.  Airlines charge by weight.  If your baggage is over their limit, you will be paying by the kilo or pound.  That is money and that is a cost for your expedition planning.

Base weight system

In my opinion, the “base weight” system is probably the worst way categorize weight.  For anyone familiar with basic accounting, the base weight system reminds me a lot of transfer pricing.  Basically, it has a high potential for abuse.

Transfer pricing is how a company sells things within the organization.  Thus, this is a major system for allocating profit to different departments.

Base weight is subject to the same kinds of games that we see in transfer pricing.  For example, if someone wants to reduce their base weight, they simply remove the item from the pack, and place it in a pocket or in their hands, and just like that, base weight is reduced.

This is useless for anything other than trying to entertain yourself with pissing matches about who has the lowest base weight and what base weight is considered light or ultra light or super light or amazingly light.

Fixed and Variable system

The system I use is very simple, much like a managerial budget (cost accounting).  I have two types of weight; fixed and variable.

Fixed weights

Fixed weights refer to the weight of things that will not change for the trip.  These are the weights of items like boots, backpack, sleeping bag, sleeping pad, rope, carabiners, crampons, etc.

For a given type of trip, no matter the length, these items weigh the same over the entire trip.

To continue to use the accounting analogy, this is like the fixed costs associated with making something.  You have a lease for your factory building.  That cost is fixed over the term of your contract, you know exactly what it will cost you, no matter how productive you are (or how much time your expedition will take).

Variable weights

Variable weights are for items that change depending on the duration of the trip.  The easiest examples are food and fuel.  But, another example is first aid equipment.  Using the accounting parallel, variable weights are just like variable costs. . .your electricity bill is a variable cost.  It varies as you use more or less electricity.  If you run an extra shift at the factory, your electricity bill goes up as you keep the lights and machines on for that time.  If your trip goes an extra day, your food weight goes up.

The weight of antibiotics, pain meds, altitude drugs, etc for a 3 day trip is different than the weight for a 28 day expedition.  The same effect is seen with gauze.  To be able to change the bandages on someone during the course of an expedition requires much larger quantities than for a weekend trip that has easy evacuation possibilities for very minor injuries.

Another tricky variable weight is fuel bottles for liquid stoves.  With an MSR style stove, 1 fuel bottle is a necessity and should probably be logged as a fixed weight, as part of the stove system.  But as the duration of the trip increases, so too does the quantity of fuel needed.  This requires more containers for carrying the fuel.  These additional containers, whether they are plastic bottles or additional metal fuel bottles should be logged as a variable weight.

Water, of course, is another variable weight, as are the containers for carrying the water and, perhaps, chemical treatments for purifying the water.  In many areas, there is little concern over availability of water.  Following rivers, fishing on lakes, or in mountains with an abundance of glacial streams, water is everywhere and makes up a relatively small amount of variable weight.  There is just no need to carry a large quantity.

However, in desert areas, water can be a significant portion of variable weight, when water suddenly is measured in days rather than in hours between streams.

Batteries are another variable weight.  A lot can be done to minimize the weight of these energy sources, however, they still vary depending on the length of the trip.

Conclusion

Using a simple model for weight accounting results in several useful advantages.  First, it is quite easy to know exactly how much weight you will be dealing with, and plan for weight decreases each day, which can correlate to mileage increases over the course of the trip as well.

Second, using this framework, it is possible to plan for expeditionary expenses, like the costs associated with shipping your gear to the destination.

Third, using empirical data, it is very possible to plan expeditions with a high degree of accuracy.  Variable weights are tricky to master, as every person has preferences for how many hot meals they consume each day, what kinds of food they will eat, how they respond to altitude, how many calories they need to eat, etc.  This is why experience is such a major factor in planning well.

I’ll cover more about weight accounting, cost accounting, and expedition planning in the next few weeks.

I apply this concept to my equipment and clothing as well.   This is especially true on long trips when your body will be undergoing changes due to the new stress of carrying a pack every day, being perpetually cold, probably wet, and living on insufficient calories.

Sock diversification

My first example of diversifying gear is with socks.  Try as I might, I’ve not been successful in reducing my the number of socks I carry below three pairs.  When I’ve tried using only two pairs, I usually end up wearing wet socks a lot.  During a stretch of wet weather, where humidity is high, it is difficult to get a pair of thick socks to dry, even inside a sleeping bag.

Three pairs of socks seem to be my minimum number.  That said, I don’t carry three pairs of the exact same socks.  I carry at least two different brands.  If I start having a foot problem, I may be able to remedy it by wearing the softer socks, or the firmer socks, or the slightly thicker socks, etc.  Sometimes a pair of socks will just seem right due to a particular reason halfway through a trip.  But the next trip, that may not hold true.

For example, feet often swell over the course of a trip.  Altitude is another factor that can cause swelling.  Early in the trip, at lower altitudes, a thick, firm sock will often be comfortable.  After a week of lugging a heavy pack over talus and scree, your feet may have increased in size substantially due to swelling.  Having a softer sock, or a slightly thinner sock could be the key to alleviating any discomfort.

Layer diversification

My second example is diversifying your layers.  I don’t use all wool, or all down, or all fleece, etc in my clothing system.  Different conditions often seem to favor certain layers more than others.  This is especially true as your body goes through the changes that living outdoors has a tendency to cause.

This involves tradeoffs in terms of weight.  A wind layer plus a light fleece sweater offers more options than a single softshell jacket, or a light down or synthetic filled mid-layer.  Two garments offer the potential of three layering combinations (item 1 worn alone, item 2 worn alone, or both items worn together), as opposed to the single possibility of one garment.  The downside is that two garments will usually be heavier than a single garment.

Sleeping bag and belay jacket insulation diversification

For most conditions, I like to have a down sleeping bag and synthetic insulation in my belay jacket.  Should something bad happen, like an unplanned swim in a glacier fed river, having something that will insulate while wet is essential.

I’ve chosen to use down sleeping bags most of the time while using synthetic clothing is due to two key reasons.  First, while moving, I may not have the choice but to sweat in my layers.  If I’m in my harness, pack, roped up, carrying the extra coils of rope, slings, and a rack, while climbing a glacier, stopping to add or remove layers isn’t very practical.  If I guessed wrong and the weather ends up warmer than expected, I’ll be sweating in my layers.  Down doesn’t deal with all that moisture when you stop to belay and have the chance to throw on that belay jacket over the wet layers.  So I use synthetic clothes.  It is harder to keep clothing dry.

The second key reason is that it is easier to keep a sleeping bag dry with the use of some garbage bags while it is inside the pack.  And, because a sleeping bag is a major piece of equipment, the weight savings by going with down instead of synthetic is substantial.

I do, however, occasionally go with all synthetic.  If the conditions are going to be around freezing most of the time, and I plan to do things like sleep in the open, in snow caves, etc where it will be nearly impossible to stay dry, I ditch the down bag and take something synthetic.

Conclusion

There are several ways to diversify gear to give yourself a lot more options during a long backcountry trip.  Diversification can increase your safety and comfort over the course of time.  Taking different brands of socks, a variety of layers, and using different types of insulation prepares you to handle the changes in weather, conditions, and physiology that occur during extended duration trips in the backcountry.

Prepare your whetstone with some water or oil.  Personally, I like to use WD-40 on my whetstone.  It flows away easily, carrying all the bits of metal.  It is also very easy to spray some more WD-40 on it to clean it off.

Take a black permanent marker and color the honed portion of your blade.  Now pass the blade on the whetstone like usual.  Look at the blade and you can easily verify whether or not you are holding the knife at the original angle because you will see where the black marker has been worn off.  Adjust the angle if need be and take another pass on the whetstone.  Check and adjust, check and adjust.

Keep this up until all the black is worn off and the edge is honed nice and smooth.

Prepared for a cold night in the Andes

I take a good look at the historical temperature and weather data.  This helps me to select equipment.  The first piece of equipment most of us think about for our sleep system is the sleeping bag.

Sleeping Bag

One of the rules of thumb I hear often is to use a sleeping bag rated to 10F degrees lower than the coldest temperature you expect to see.  Personally, I find this is pretty bad advice for three reasons.

First, on a longer trip, there are going to be warm days and cold days.  There is nothing worse than sweating all night in a bag because unzipping the bag leaves you too chilled, but the bag is too heavy for the temperatures you are seeing that night.  This is very easy to experience in sub zero temperatures.  A bag rated for –40F is going to feel really warm in -20F conditions, but –20F is really cold if you aren’t wrapped up in that sleeping bag.

Second, there is no reason not to utilize the insulation you are packing for the day.  Those layers of clothes are effective insulation during the day and at night.  In addition, I’m not a fan of stripping down out of my layers in sub-zero temperatures and getting dressed again in the morning.  It just isn’t comfortable and can be pretty dangerous to expose yourself to serious cold.  Sleeping in my clothes is standard.

Finally, there are a few other things you can use to increase your insulation when the temperatures plunge lower.  First, I’ll throw my belay jacket over the top of my sleeping bag.  I’ll wear a balaclava to sleep. A sleeping pad and proper shelter from the wind can help dramatically as well.  A sturdy water bottle filled with hot water can also help warm things up in the bag.  Use this method with caution as a leak could be disastrous.

This is why I usually select a bag that is rated to temperatures 10 to 20F above the temperatures I’m expecting.  I like a –20F bag for anything down to –40F or so.  Similarly, a 20F bag is just fine down to 0F.  By taking a bag rated that way, I get some weight savings, which is always important.

An important point to keep in mind is to never pull your face inside your sleeping bag.  You exhale large quantities of moisture which will penetrate the insulation in your bag and cause cold spots and problems.  Don’t do it.

Sleeping Pad

The ground is generally a far better conductor of heat than the air.  It is vitally important to have good insulation between your body and the ground.  Your sleeping bag isn’t enough, because your body compresses the bag where you lay on it, and prevents it from holding nice warm air in the insulation.

I have used foam pads as my sleeping pads extensively.  I’ll still use foam in very warm weather.  Closed cell foam is a great pad material.  I strongly recommend carrying at least a small square to sit on in the winter.  This could be the back pad/frame of a daypack or summit pack.

There are now much better choices for extreme cold weather.  Various inflatable pads offer much better protection from cold ground.  Just like your fluffy down sleeping bag holds warm air close to you, an inflatable pad holds warm air close to you.  These can be insulated with synthetic materials, foam, or down.

My long time favorite is the Thermarest pad.  I have one that is about 15 years old, and it still works great.  I’ve upgraded to a down filled air mat, in hopes that the greater ground insulation allows me to push my sleep system to even colder temperatures.

Shelter

A good shelter is a necessity to protect from the wind and any snow / ice getting blown around.  I’ll sleep under the stars in hot weather, but in extreme cold, the consequences of not having shelter are substantially more severe.  I’ve used a variety of shelters, from tarps, to snow caves, to tents.  They are all good options and I’ll continue to use all of those options.  However, I do have a preference for tents for a few reasons.

Snow shelters are slow to build.  They take a lot of time, and can be difficult in certain snow conditions.  This takes a lot of time each day if you are moving from camp to camp.  However, they are warm and really weatherproof.  You can get away with a much lighter sleeping bag if you use good snow shelters.  They are a great option for base-camps.

Tarps are fast and light, but don’t protect like a tent or snow shelter.  They can be used to make faster snow shelters, like a trench shelter with the tarp over the top.  I like tarps quite a bit because of this versatility and light weight.  However, in general, a tarp will offer the least protection from brutal wind and wind driven snow that is often seen at altitude.

Tents are more weatherproof than tarps, and faster than snow shelters.  They are the middle ground.  I prefer a very light and simple single wall tent for the bulk of cold weather situations.  I prefer to size the tent as small as possible so that my body heat is able to warm the interior quite a bit.  The key is to have lots of guy line available.  This allows you to anchor the tent securely even in harsh conditions.

A very light tarp is handy to have even with a tent or snow shelter because it allows you to have a protected kitchen / dining area.  Cutting the wind not only keeps you warmer, but can help increase the efficiency of your cooking system.  The weight of the tarp can easily pay for itself with a decreased fuel load.  You can also hang clothes to dry under a tarp, allowing them to get lots of good airflow, but not get hit with falling snow.

Clothing

When I was a child, I heard that in the winter, it was best to sleep naked or in underwear only.  I’m not sure how or why that rumor developed, but it is ridiculous.  I wear clothes to sleep.  In extreme cold, it isn’t very pleasant to wake up in the morning and put on cold, frozen-stiff clothes.  That means I keep my clothes in my sleeping bag at night anyway.  So, rather than wasting that insulation value by padding the foot of my sleeping bag, I keep the clothes on and wear them to sleep.  The key is not to overstuff my sleeping bag though.  This means I don’t wear my belay jacket into the sleeping bag because it is too big and the insulation ends up compressed.  Instead, I drape it over the top of my sleeping bag, over the chest area to add a bit more insulation where it matters.

I have an old habit of putting any wind shell layers between my sleeping bag and sleeping pad.  In the past, before I had a thick, high insulating value sleeping pad and a sleeping bag with a waterproof breathable shell, I’d often find frost between my bag and pad.  I’d put my shell between my sleeping bag and sleeping pad to prevent the possibility of them freezing together during the night.  I haven’t experienced the frost issues anymore, but I still often tuck my wind shells under my sleeping bag to keep them warm.

Finally, the same clothing practices that keep you warm on the move will keep you warm in your sleeping bag.  A nice dry pair of thick socks works wonders for keeping the feet comfortable.  I’ll usually have my wool hat and my balaclava tucked in the hood of my sleeping bag.  If I get cold, particularly as the night goes on and gets colder, I can layer my hats to hold in the heat, and the balaclava prevents the temptation to bury my face in the sleeping bag and ruin the down insulation.

Some things I haven’t tried but have seen others use to good effect are insulated booties.  Several brands make these, and they are basically down or synthetic insulated booties that are worn into the sleeping bag and inside the tent.  I haven’t really felt the need, as I don’t seem to get cold feet.  But it is something to keep in mind.

Miscellaneous

One of the key things I’ve noticed over the years is the difference between being warm and feeling warm.  Using this system, I am warm and safe.  The first few nights in extreme cold, especially if I’ve just come from a very hot climate, can really be rough.  I feel cold.  But I’m just fine, I am warm and safe.  I simply need to acclimate to the cold, the same way I need to acclimate to altitude.  That is a key point to remember.

Wrap-up

So, what does my extreme cold weather sleep kit look like now?

Bibler Eldorado tent (see my review here)

Exped Downmat 9 (see my review here)

Marmot Col EQ –20F sleeping bag (see my review here)

Patagonia DAS Parka

Patagonia Micro Puff pants

Outdoor Research balaclava

Wool hat

Lithium batteries don’t seem to suffer the same problems as alkaline.  They are lighter too.  This is especially handy when you have a variety of devices requiring batteries.

Climbing involves one of two states; climbing or belaying, or to put it another way, motion or stillness.  When moving, you work up a sweat.  When you stop moving, you can easily be chilled as the sweat evaporates due to the high efficiency synthetic fabrics most of us use these days.  This necessitates a big warm jacket that can be used over the top of all the existing clothing to help dry the sweat and prevent chilling.

Of course, such a jacket must, by the very nature of its use, be made with synthetic insulation.  Down will not work when used this way.  It will get wet from your sweat.  It will get wet from snow and ice coated gloves that you stuff in the pockets to dry.  Lots of people will be upset by this because synthetics are not as lightweight as down.  I’m a huge fan of going light, but assessments must be made about the suitability of materials for the conditions.

Backpacking, snowshoeing, skiing, etc are all similar activities.  You will move, and work hard, creating sweat.  Then, you stop for rest breaks, for lunch, etc.  During these times it helps to have a warm jacket that can also dry out your wet layers.

In very cold conditions, a pair of synthetic insulated belay pants will be necessary as well.  These items should be carried stuffed in readily accessible locations in your pack.

My choices are the Patagonia DAS parka for the belay jacket and the Patagonia Micro Puff pants for the belay pants.  The fit of both of these is generous without being overly baggy.  It is easy to fit them over all of your other layers while still being able to move.  They withstand the repeated stuffing and general hard use that they get from climbing.  In very cold conditions, I often integrate these pieces into my sleep system to get some extra warmth.

Azimuth

When we use a compass to determine a direction, we are technically talking about an azimuth.  We use a reference of North as 0 and measure our direction using degrees clockwise from North (e.g. East is 90 degrees, South is 180 degrees, West is 270 degrees).  Our reference meridian can be true north, grid north, magnetic north, or an assumed north, but that is beyond the scope of this article.

Bearing

While we often use the word bearing the same way we use the word azimuth, that isn’t technically correct.  A bearing is described from North or South, and what angle to the East or West.  So, we can say we are 20 degrees East of South or more commonly S 20 E.  To put that in terms of an azimuth, we say 160 degrees.

Confusing enough?

Here is a simple way to convert from azimuth to bearing:

With 0 to 90 degree azimuth = 0 to 90 degree bearing

With 90 to 180 degree azimuth, your bearing = 180 – azimuth

With 180 to 270 degree azimuth, your bearing =  azimuth – 180

With 270 to 360 degree azimuth, your bearing = 360 – azimuth

For example, an azimuth of 296 degrees converts to a bearing of N 64 W.

Clearer?

First, I recommend having a good windscreen, a heat exchanger of some sort, and a nice wide pot with a tight fitting lid.  All of these increase efficiency.  For one person, making their entire water supply, a 2 liter pot is about the minimum size.

Second, start with some water in the pot.  Heat this water up a bit before you start adding snow or ice, and add the snow or ice slowly so that you don’t cause a bunch of sudden condensation on your pot.

Third, use ice as much as possible instead of snow.  Ice is far denser and thus produces more water from less material.  If you have to use snow, pack the snow as much as possible.  A good heavy bag like a trash compactor bag or stuff sack works well for holding the supply of snow as you pack it.

Finally, if you can, use alternative methods to create water, as they save fuel.  For example, black plastic bags are great.  You can lay one down in the sun, and pile some snow on it.  The sun will create some melt water with very little effort on your part.

Another method is to pack snow into a water bottle that you keep in your clothes as you move.  Your body heat will melt the snow, and the cold bottle will help you keep cool while you work.

As it turns out, potatoes are a good source of potassium, so I’ve carried crushed up potato chips (they don’t stay whole in a pack anyway), which have plenty of salt.  I would add the crushed up chips to whatever dinner stew I’d make.  I’m not really fond of potato chips, and they aren’t the most convenient form for quick electrolyte replacement for me.

I then tried mixing up table salt with something called “salt substitute”.  Salt substitute is made for people on sodium restricted diets.  It is potassium chloride instead of sodium chloride.  But, salt substitute has a different taste than salt.

Along came “Endurolytes” from Hammer Nutrition.  These are handy pills containing some good stuff like calcium and magnesium along with sodium and potassium.  I much prefer these over other methods as I can more closely control how much I am taking, and I can take it quickly on the move instead of waiting for mealtime.

1. Sleeping bag, sleeping pad, and/or tent floors can freeze together.  The moisture that your body releases during the night will travel through your sleeping bag, toward the ground.  At some point, the moisture will freeze.  I have not had it freeze my sleeping bag, but I have found frost on top of my sleeping pad.  In the past, I would place my hard shell gear between my sleeping bag and sleeping pad as an extra layer to help prevent anything freezing together.  One of the very light silver emergency blankets would probably work very well for this too.  I have noticed that as I have increased the R value of my sleeping pad, this has become less of a problem.  I also think that perhaps the waterproof breathable shell on my Marmot Col sleeping bag is helping to prevent problems.

2. Sleeping surfaces vary dramatically in how cold they are.  Here is a rough list of thermal conductivity values (copied from Wikipedia).  The higher the number, the more insulation you will need between you and that surface.  Snow makes a very good sleep surface.

• Air 0.025
• Soil 0.17 – 1.13
• Snow 0.11
• Ice 1.6 – 2.2
• Granite 1.73 – 3.98

3. The good thing about extreme cold weather is that the air is often very dry.  This means you can easily dry your gear in such conditions.  Opening your sleeping bag and hanging it in the wind each morning will work wonders to prevent moisture building up and increasing the weight of your bag over the length of your trip.

4. Frozen boots are not pleasant.  Insoles and liners can be removed from your boots and kept in your sleeping bag with you to keep them warm.  The boots themselves should be cleaned of snow and ice as much as possible.  Place them in a stuff sack (I often turn a stuff sack inside out to keep the interior of the sack clean).  Then place the stuff sack under the foot of your sleeping bag.  This also has the benefit of giving you a nice foot rest.

5. Hot water bottles have long been used to keep a sleeping bag warm at night.  It also helps keep the water from freezing during the night.  Be sure to use a very high quality water bottle.  A leaking bottle inside your sleeping bag can create an extreme dangerous situation as it soaks your insulation and freezes into ice.

6. The pee bottle is an essential piece of gear.  There is nothing worse than crawling out of your sleeping bag, putting on your boots and jacket, heading out of the tent or snow cave, and going to the bathroom.  Life is much simpler and more comfortable when you have a pee bottle.  Make sure you use either a unique bottle or a well marked bottle.  I use some athletic tape to create a textural difference on my pee bottle.  That way, I can find it by touch, even while I’m half asleep.  I suggest a 1 liter size bottle.  Overfilling the pee bottle in the tent will guarantee your partners will hate you.

7.  If you are setting up a base camp, a tarp is a great piece of gear to have.  You can use the tarp to shelter the kitchen area.  This allows you protection from the sun and wind and weather.  You can also hang a clothesline underneath the tarp.  If the snow is deep enough, dig a nice kitchen with benches and work areas and pitch the tarp to protect that area.

8. In avalanche terrain, everyone in the group should have a metal blade shovel, no exceptions.  I won’t go with anyone that refuses to have a proper shovel.

9. Similarly, in avalanche terrain, be sure to have a compass with an inclinometer.  You want to check those slopes to be sure you are not exposing yourself to unnecessary risks.

10. Pre-cut food that freezes solid.  Cheese, salami, sausages, sticks of butter, etc can all freeze into blocks that are tough to cut when it is time for meals.  I recommend cutting these things into bite sized pieces at home, and then packaging them into meal sized portions in plastic bags.  Keep your lunch bag in a pocket on your clothes, close to your body starting in the morning to help thaw and soften your food through the day.

11. Have a good surface to use for your stove.  You need to insulate the stove from the snow; otherwise you can melt the snow under the stove and spill your pot of dinner.  You can use your shovel blade, you can use a piece of plywood, or the stove stands sold commercially.

12.  As the temperatures get colder and colder, it becomes more difficult to create fire.  I carry several disposable butane lighters in my pockets all over my clothing.  This way, they stay warm and easy to use.

13. Liquid stove fuels are the best option in extreme cold.  Kerosene and white gas are the two most common.  Be careful, these liquids will stay liquid at very cold temperatures and can cause severe cold injuries if you spill any fuel on your skin.  When working with these fuels, keep in mind that priming your stove will be more difficult in the cold.  Priming pastes are made to assist with this, and are almost entirely necessary with kerosene.  I also have had success using the scraps of paper from tea bags or other packaging.

14. If you are in a forested area with deep snow, you need to be very careful near the trees.  The snow, especially near pine trees that can cover the snow with their boughs, tends to be unconsolidated and can be very dangerous.  It is very easy to drop right into one of these tree wells and suffocate just like in an avalanche.

Hopefully these tips help you with your cold weather adventures.

6. GPS

Global positioning systems have become incredibly popular in recent years.  They are so popular that I have actually met people that do not carry a compass in the backcountry.  I consider this practice dangerous.  Just like a compass has limitations and times when it will not function (near lots of metal for example), so too does a GPS.  I have been under canopy thick enough that satellite reception doesn’t happen.  Batteries also fail in the cold.

Don’t get me wrong, GPS is a great tool.  It provides a backup for your compass, and your compass provides a backup for your GPS.  GPS is like the modern version of the sextant, helping you to navigate by the heavens.

There are a variety of models available, but the things I look for in a GPS are very basic.  I’m not sure that any models do not have what I consider essential.  First, you need to be able to match your GPS to your map datum.  Second, you need to be able to work in meters / kilometers, because; third, you need to be able to use UTM.  UTM grids are in meters, pace counting math is easier when working in meters, and maps in most countries are denoted in meters.  Finally, I always look for a GPS that uses the same batteries as my other gear.  Matching batteries as much as possible reduces the amount of spares you need to carry, because you can share batteries among devices. My preference is something simple like Garmin eTrex H Handheld GPS Navigator.

7. Aerial Photographs

Google Maps has made it incredibly easy to view aerial photographs of just about anywhere on the planet.  Your topographic map can be out of date, sometimes dramatically.  Having a more recent view via an aerial photograph allows you to see the terrain before you actually arrive.  You can more carefully plot potential routes, potential alternate routes, terrain features to use as handrails and backstops when navigating, and possible sites of interest.

With some work, you can find objects on the photograph that you can use as a reference to add a map scale to the photo.  This can help you work back and forth with your map and your photos.  Another method I have used is to use a photocopier to resize a photo to the same size as the map.  Modern image editing software makes this much easier.

8. Topographic Maps

Last, but not least, is the topographic map.  This is arguably the most important piece of navigational equipment.  In many areas, it is possible to navigate entirely by terrain association with the map.   Purchase maps well in advance of your trip so that you have time to compare them to aerial photos, match the map datum to your GPS, set your compass to the proper declination, or look up the most recent declination value given a latitude and longitude from the map.

Just like with the aerial photo, studying your map allows you to plan your routes, determine terrain features to use to assist in navigation, find some locations that will likely be good campsites, or water sources, etc.  This is all very helpful when you are in areas that do not have established trails and campsites.

When traveling along an azimuth, it can be easy to drift to parallels left or right of your original path.  These errors over time accumulate and can put you well off course.

There is a little trick to help make sure you don’t drift too far off course though.  Assuming you are with a partner, you can have your partner walk out a set distance (I would use increments of 100 meters if possible to make pace counting easier) based on visibility, and then move left or right until they create a perfect landmark for you to shoot an azimuth.  Your partner must stay in position while you move to their position.  It will be slow going for sure, but it helps add a bit of accuracy and precision.

Take your time and carefully log your moves.

Tools of the trade

1. Compass

When selecting a compass for navigating in the backcountry, there are a number of features that are necessary.

Primarily, you absolutely must be able to accurately shoot an azimuth.  I prefer mirror compasses for this purpose.  If you look at the geologist’s transit, it has a mirror sighting mechanism.  I’ve found that I can shoot consistent azimuths with a mirrored compass.

Second, if, like me, you travel internationally, you absolutely want a specialized type of compass that can be used anywhere in the world.  Different regions in the world have magnetic fields that vary and require compasses tuned to that area.  Buying a global compass means you only buy one compass and it works anywhere.

Third, adjustable declination is a very good feature.  You can compute declination each time in your head, if you want, but having a compass that you can tune to the exact declination means one less thing you have to worry about when you are focusing on everything else.

Fourth, the various map scales that are found on baseplate compasses are handy, but I tend to carry a separate protractor.  USGS maps are often 1:24,000, and many compasses include a scale for that.

Fifth, I like having inclinometers in my compass.  I often try to get a good idea of slope from maps beforehand, but having that inclinometer to measure and verify is comforting in avalanche territory.

My personal choice for a compass is the MC-2G IN GLOBAL from Suunto.  It has all the features I discussed.

2. Altimeter

Altimeters are another navigational tool for the mountains.  Often, when you get into the mountains you want, you can easily sight a few surrounding peaks and know that you are in the right area consistently.  However, when ascending or descending, you’ll want to know the altitude of landmarks that tell you when to look for a pass, when to look for a trail, when to look for a rappel, or a cave, etc.

In CONUS, there are options for reasonably priced altimeters because they do not need to measure to extremely high altitudes.

My choice for CONUS is the Brunton ADC Ridge Mechanical Altimeter because I tend to wear cheap watches without altimeter features while climbing. I have a bad habit of breaking my watches.

3. Map protractors

Protractors are used for plotting points and measuring distances on your maps.  You can often use a baseplate compass for this purpose, however when traveling internationally, you may be dealing with some very different map scales.  I suggest having a variety of protractors for different scales.

My choice for CONUS, because it has a variety of handy tools on it is the Brunton Quad Tool Map Measurer.  Other options are available at military surplus stores.

4. Markers / Pens

I use a variety of pens and markers for map marking purposes.

First, for field use, I highly recommend having a pen that has waterproof ink.  This is used for map marking, writing in journals, taking notes when performing first aid, etc.  A good pen is an essential piece of gear.  I use a Fisher Pens Bullet Space Pen.

For drawing UTM grids on maps, I like Pigma Micron pens.  They allow me to draw very fine lines of the same weight as the existing map markings.

For marking waterproofed maps, I use a variety of colors of Staedtler Lumocolor permanent markers.   For example, I may mark locations of basecamp, caches, etc.

5. Waterproof Notebook

A good waterproof notebook is an essential.  When you navigate off trail, you’ll want to keep notes about distances, times, locations, etc.  You will want to document whether water is readily available, any problems you may face reversing a route, etc.  This is especially true if you plan on returning to the area in the future.  The more detailed the notes, the better.

I like a small notebook without a spiral binding.  Rite in the Rain All Weather Journal Field-flex Pocket (3 1/2″ X 5″) is one of my favorites.

Watch for navigational tools of the trade part 2 next week.

US Navel Oceanography Portal Complete Sun and Moon Data (worldwide by latitude and longitude)

National Geophysical Data Center Magnetic Declination Calculator

A back azimuth is very easy to calculate in degrees.  First, shoot your azimuth.  Then, calculate according to the following rules:

IF YOUR AZIMUTH IS

Less than 180 degrees, then add 180 degrees to get your back azimuth

Greater than 180 degrees, then subtract 180 degrees to get your back azimuth

Exactly 180 degrees, or South, then your back azimuth is either 0 or 360 degrees, both of which are, of course, North

Here is a little practice exercise for you:

Why do you need it

The most common need for a back azimuth, in my experience, is reversing a path.  If you have shot an azimuth on a landmark and approached that landmark only to find out that your path will not work, you may need to reverse that path all the way back to your last known point.  You will use the back azimuth to find the exact direction you need to follow to reverse your path.  Pace counting will be very useful here as well because it will allow you to easily return to an exact point.

Another possibility is that you have a very good landmark behind you, and would like to shoot an azimuth on that landmark, and then travel in the exact opposite direction. 

Here are the answers to the exercise above

For example, on a short hike, blisters are unlikely for me.  I will be using well worn in boots, carrying very little weight comparatively, and covering only a short distance.  Thus, I don’t carry blister care items as I deem them unnecessary.

As the trip increases in duration, my pack gets heavier, the mileage increases, and the probability of getting blisters goes up.  In addition, the need to change bandaging arises as the length of the trip increases.  All of this creates a need for blister care items, and increases the quantity necessary.

To summarize the method then, I know that blisters are common as trip length increases.  The impact of a blister is minimal unless it becomes complicated by infection.  This is a high probability – low impact situation most of the time but could be high probability – high impact.  So, in my case, it makes sense to carry the items necessary to handle this situation.

To give another example, I do not get motion sickness.  I certainly have never experienced motion sickness while backpacking or climbing.  Even if I did get motion sickness, I suspect the impact would be minimal and not prevent me from doing whatever needs to be done.  This is a low probability – low impact situation, and as such, I carry no supplies to deal with it.

A final example is a sprained ankle.  I have strong ankles and do not seem to sprain them, even after missteps occur.  However, I am often in areas where rescue could be extremely unlikely or prolonged quite a bit.  This makes self rescue a very real necessity.  In my case, a sprained ankle is a low probability – high impact type of event.  I carry supplies to handle it so that I can self rescue if necessary.

In using this type of model, I find that I can create streamlined, minimalistic first aid kits for my trips that still inspire the confidence that I can handle the situations I could face.  You will need to determine the probabilities and impacts for yourself based on your needs and your types of trips.

When navigating in difficult areas, particularly “cross-country” or “off-trail” you must be absolutely certain of your location.  GPS has made this easy, but if your GPS unit fails, you should have the skills to navigate using your map and compass.

To start, you will be using “vectors”.  A vector is a mathematical term used in geometry.  A vector has both a direction AND a length.  This is critically important.  Your compass only provides one element of the vector; the direction.

After plotting your start point and end point on a map, you can determine the direction of travel, and use your compass to find that direction.  Now you must measure the distance between the two points on the map.  Using UTM gridlines makes this very easy.  On a USGS 7.5 minute map, the UTM grid is 1km by 1km.  You can count the gridlines, or use a special map measuring tool (basically a piece of clear plastic with 10 evenly spaced tick marks corresponding to the 1km by 1km grid).

Now you can walk along in the direction of travel, counting paces to know how far you have traveled.

Establishing a pace count

Establishing a pace count takes practice.  Starting with a nice flat area, find two landmarks that are 500 meters apart.  Walk from one landmark to the other, counting one pace as each time your left foot strikes the ground.  Divide that number by 5 to give you your “perfect conditions” pace count for 100 meters.

Now put on your backpack with a reasonably normal weight load and pace that same span.  Divide your count by 5, to see what happens as you increase your load.  Your pace count will have gone up.  Your paces are not as long anymore.

This is why you need to practice.  Find trails that have marked distances and practice hiking them with a load, counting your paces.  This will help you determine a rough average pace count that you can use in most conditions.

Tracking your paces

There are a number of ways to track your paces.  In general, you count your paces until you reach the 100 meter point.  You indicate this with your preferred method, and starting counting paces again from zero.

You can attach a piece of cord to your pack strap or shirt pocket and tie a knot every 100 meters.

You can move a small rock or other item from one pocket to another pocket every 100 meters.

Or, you can use commercially available pace-counting beads.  These generally have two sections; the top section has 4 beads, and the bottom section has 9 beads.

I set all the beads up.  As I count off each 100 meters, I slide one of the lower beads to the bottom of the string.  Once I’ve slide them all down, I count another 100 meters, slide the 9 lower section beads back to the top, and slide one of the upper section beads down.  I’ve now moved 1 km.

Universal Transverse Mercator or UTM is a grid system that is much easier to use than latitude and longitude.  UTM utilizes a 1 kilometer by 1 kilometer grid on standard USGS 7.5 minute maps to measure your location.  By printing the UTM grid on a map, it makes approximating distances easy because you can simply count grids from your origin to your destination.

To prepare your maps, look to see if the UTM grid is preprinted on the map.  On some maps, this will be the case, but on others, there will be tick marks along the edges of the map, often in blue for the 7.5 minute US maps, that indicate the UTM grid.  I use a 24 inch long steel ruler with a cork backing as a straightedge when I draw in the UTM grid.  The cork backing is important because it keeps the ruler off of the map, preventing ink smudges and allowing a clear view of the tick marks that I am trying to connect.  In addition, I use readily available ink pens with a 0.2 mm tip (my favorite is the Pigma Micron) to draw in the lines for the grid.  These pens are found in most stores that sell art and drafting supplies.  Be sure to find the pens that say “waterproof ink” on them.  Care must be taken with these pens as the tips are so fine that they are easily bent or distorted if you use too much pressure.  Draw the line slowly to get a solid black line without any skips.

Equipment for plotting UTM lines

Once you have the UTM grid drawn on the map, it is time to waterproof the map.  There are a number of commercial map waterproofing agents available.  These are all good products.  Follow the directions on the bottle.  You’ll need a foam brush to apply the waterproofing material.  If you used an ink that was not waterproof, it may ruin the map.   In addition, you’ll want to waterproof the map before you crease the map.  Repeated creases can wear the paper thin in areas, and after waterproofing these thin areas, you’ll often find that you can no longer read information at the crease points.

Now your map is properly prepared for a trip into the field.  To further protect it, you’ll want a map case of some sort.  I have tried several specialty waterproof map cases made from sturdy plastic, and found them to be bulky and inconvenient.  Over time, my favorite map case has become the one gallon freezer bag.  These are readily available, cheap, easily replaced, and waterproof.  They are clear on both sides, making it easy to read a large portion of the map.